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| Voiceless | Voiced | Aspirate | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Labial | π (p) | β (b) | φ (ph) |
| Dental | τ (t) | δ (d) | θ (th) |
| Velar | κ (k) | γ (g) | χ (ch) |
ζ (zeta) = δ + σ (dz or z)
ξ (xi) = κ/γ/χ + σ (ks)
ψ (psi) = π/β/φ + σ (ps)
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Always Short: ε (epsilon), ο (omicron)
Always Long: η (eta), ω (omega)
Variable: α, ι, υ (can be short or long)
When ι combines with long vowels (α, η, ω), it writes beneath:
ᾳ ῃ ῳ
The iota is not pronounced in Erasmian pronunciation.
Greek has three accent marks. They all perform the same function: showing where to stress a word. Accent placement helps identify noun case, verb tense, and verb mood.
Looks like an upward tick mark. Can appear on any of the last three syllables and over any length vowel.
ἄνθρωπος λόγος ἀγάπη
Looks like a downward tick mark. It is simply an acute that changes to grave when on the final syllable and followed by another word.
καλός → καλὸς ἄνθρωπος
Only appears on the ultima (last syllable)
Looks like an upside-down breve or tilde (~). Can only appear on the last two syllables and only over long vowels.
δῶρον οἶκος ψυχῆς
Never on antepenult. Never on short vowels.
Every word beginning with a vowel has a breathing mark:
| Mark | Name | Sound | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| ᾿ | Smooth | No "h" sound | ἀγάπη (a-GA-pay) |
| ῾ | Rough | Add "h" sound | ὁδός (ho-DOS) |
Every word beginning with ρ or υ has rough breathing: ῥῆμα, υἱός
We only care about the last three syllables — those are the only ones that can be accented.
The ULTIMA is the most important syllable!
Its length (short or long) determines where accents can go.
| Always SHORT | Always LONG | Variable |
|---|---|---|
| ε, ο | η, ω | α, ι, υ |
| final -οι, -αι | All other diphthongs |
Key exception: Final -οι and -αι count as short for accent purposes!
ἄνθρωποι (short ultima)
Never further toward the front of the word.
• Acute can only go on last two syllables
• Circumflex can only go on ultima
ἀνθρώπου (long ultima → accent moves)
• Acute can go on any of last three syllables
• Circumflex can go on last two syllables
ἄνθρωπος (short ultima → accent on antepenult)
• Can only be on LONG vowels or diphthongs
• Can be on penult only if ultima is short
δῶρον ✓ but δώρου ✓ (circumflex → acute)
Think of accents racing toward the beginning of the word:
🐇 Acute = The Hare (fast!) — can reach antepenult if ultima is short
🐢 Circumflex = The Tortoise (slow) — always one step behind the acute
A long ultima "slows everyone down" — both accents lose one position.
The accent on a noun is persistent — it wants to stay where the dictionary shows it.
When you look up a word, note where the accent is. That's its "natural position."
| Word | Natural Position | Position Name |
|---|---|---|
| ἄνθρωπος | ἄν- | Antepenult |
| βιβλίον | -λί- | Penult |
| θεός | -ός | Ultima |
The accent stays put unless the spelling forces it to change.
If the ultima becomes long and the accent is on the antepenult, it must move:
ἄνθρωπος → ἀνθρώπου
(genitive -ου is long, so accent moves to penult)
A circumflex on the penult must become acute if the ultima becomes long:
δῶρον → δώρου
(circumflex can't be on penult when ultima is long)
The accent prefers to change shape before changing position.
Greek has one set of endings for all nouns. Declensions are really about stem types, not different endings.
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | -ς | -ες |
| Accusative | -ν | -νς |
| Genitive | -ο | -ων |
| Dative | -ι | -σι |
1st Declension: α-stems (mostly feminine)
2nd Declension: ο-stems (mostly masc/neut)
3rd Declension: Consonant stems (varied)
When endings meet different stem types, the spelling changes predictably.
The accent on a verb is recessive — it wants to go as far back as possible (toward the antepenult).
The only thing stopping it is the length of the ultima.
If nothing prevents it, the accent goes all the way back:
ἔχομεν (we have)
-μεν is short, so accent goes to ἔ- (antepenult)
A long ultima limits the accent to the penult:
λαμβάνω (I take)
-ω is long, so accent can only reach -βά- (penult)
Verb accents are predictable — just look at the ultima!
• Short ultima → accent on 3rd syllable from end
• Long ultima → accent on 2nd syllable from end
Unlike nouns, you don't need to memorize where verb accents go.
| NOUNS | VERBS | |
|---|---|---|
| Pattern | Persistent | Recessive |
| Rule | Stays where dictionary shows | Goes as far back as possible |
| Movement | Only when forced by spelling | Always determined by ultima |
| Memorize? | Yes (from dictionary) | No (predictable) |
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Reading Greek: Stress the accented syllable!
Remember: Accent placement affects meaning. Correct stress = correct reading.
Spaced review: missed cards come back sooner; easy cards wait longer — a lightweight ANKI-style pattern saved in your browser.
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Source list: Bruce M. Metzger, Lexical Aids for Students of New Testament Greek, 3rd ed., pp. 7–17.